Ancient India: Maurya and Post-Maurya Rulers (NCERT)

Origin of the Mauryans

• In the sixth century BC, conflicts arose among Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha Mahajanapadas as they vied for territorial expansion. Magadha eventually emerged victorious.
• Following the Nanda rule, the powerful Mauryan dynasty ascended to the throne of Magadha, solidifying its status as one of the most prominent dynasties in ancient Indian history.
• Chandragupta, with the assistance of Chanakya, played a pivotal role in founding the Mauryan empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya subsequently became a significant minister in Chandragupta’s court.

Different views on the Origin of the Mauryans

Archaeological Sources:

• Ashokan Edicts: Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts, and Cave Inscriptions attributed to Ashoka are discovered at different locations across the Indian subcontinent.
• Decipherment: James Prinsep successfully deciphered these edicts in AD 1837.
• Content: The majority of these edicts convey Ashoka’s proclamations to the public, while a few detail his acceptance of Buddhism.
• Material Remains: Artifacts like Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), silver, and copper punch-marked coins provide insights into the material culture of the Mauryan period.

Literary Sources:

• Abundant Literary Records: Numerous literary sources contribute to a clearer understanding of the history of the Mauryan period.
• Jataka Tales: The Jataka, containing stories of the Buddha’s previous lives, offers insights into the social and economic structures prevalent during the Mauryan empire.
• The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana offer insights into Bindusara’s reign, Ashoka’s expeditions to quell a Taxila rebellion, and his conversion to Buddhism. The Jaina work Sthaviravali Charita, or Parisishtaparvan by Hemachandra, delves into Chandragupta Maurya’s life, covering his early years, Magadha conquest, Magadha famine, and adoption of Jainism.
• The Mahavamsatika, a commentary on Mahavamsa from the 10th century AD, provides details on the Mauryans’ origin.
• Sri Lankan chronicles, Dipavamsa (compiled between the 3rd century BC and 4th century AD) and Mahavamsa (written in the 5th century AD), extensively describe Ashoka’s role in propagating Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
• Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta (4th century AD), a Sanskrit drama, depicts prevailing socio-economic conditions and mentions Chandragupta Sabha (Council).
• Additional sources like Rajatarangini by Kalhana, Kathasaritasagar by Somadeva, and Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra contribute further insights into Mauryan history.
• Arthashastra of Kautilya: The Sanskrit work Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, serves as a comprehensive treatise on statecraft and public administration. Kautilya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta, covers diverse topics, including kingship, government, state affairs, war and peace, diplomacy, revenue systems, espionage, army organization, and marriage laws.
• The work is structured into 15 Adhikaranas or books, comprising 180 Prakarnas (chapters) and a total of 6000 verses.

Megasthenes:

• Megasthenes, an ambassador sent by Seleucus, compiled his observations on Mauryan India in the book “Indica.” 
• Key insights from Megasthenes include:
• King was the central figure in the administrative structure.
• Megasthenes portrays the king as a diligent individual.
• Severe criminal laws, including mutilation and death penalties.
• High praise for the honesty of the Indian people, with theft being a rare occurrence.
• The assertion that famine was non-existent in India, and there was never a general scarcity of nourishing food.

Mauryan Rulers:

• The Mauryan dynasty, comprising Chandragupta Maurya, his sons Bindusara, and Ashoka, played a significant role in ancient India.

Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC):

• At the age of 25, Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda, and captured Pataliputra in 321 BC with the assistance of Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta (as mentioned in Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta).
• In 305 BC, Chandragupta initiated a North-West campaign against Seleucus Nikator, culminating in the Treaty of 303 BC, favoring the Mauryans. As part of the treaty, Chandragupta provided 500 elephants to Seleucus, who, in return, ceded Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the region west of the Indus to the Mauryan Empire.
• The Girnar record recounts Chandragupta instructing his Viceroy, Pushyagupta (also his brother-in-law), to construct the renowned Sudarsana lake. Pushyagupta held the title of Simant Raja. Chandragupta’s marriage to Helena, later named Durdhara, the daughter of Seleucus Nicator, is documented.
• The Sohagura Copper Plate Inscription (Gorakhpur district) and Mahasthan Inscription (Bogra district) outline relief measures for famine, likely issued during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. Greek accounts refer to him as Sandrokottos. Chandragupta’s expansionist policies centralized control over much of present-day India, excluding areas like Kalinga and the far South, during his rule from 321 BC to 297 BC.
• Jaina sources report that Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards life’s end, eventually abdicating the throne in favor of his son. Accompanied by the Jaina saint Bhadrabahu, he journeyed to South India and spent his remaining years at Sravanabelagola, where he adhered to the orthodox Jain practice of slow starvation, known as Sallekhana.

Bindusara (298-273 BC) 

• Bindusara (298-273 BC) succeeded Chandragupta. Known as Amitrochates to the Greeks and Bindupala in Chinese texts, Bindusara’s reign is documented by Taranatha, a Tibetan Buddhist monk who visited India in the 16th century.
• Bindusara expanded his empire by conquering 16 states, spanning the region between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
• Susima, Bindusara’s eldest son, served as Viceroy of Taxila, while Ashoka held a similar position in Ujjain. A revolt in Taxila led Bindusara to send Ashoka to restore order.
• Bindusara had diplomatic ties with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria, and received an ambassador named Deimachus. Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt also sent Dionysius as an ambassador to Bindusara.
• The Mauryan Empire, under Bindusara, reached as far south as the Indian peninsula, with 16 states falling under its dominion. Kalinga was the only notable exception.
• While some Buddhist texts describe Bindusara as a Brahmana Bhatto (monk of the Brahmanas), an inscription at Sanchi suggested his involvement in building a Buddhist temple, Temple 40.
• Bindusara’s religious affiliations remain debated, with some texts suggesting Brahmanism and others mentioning Ajivikas due to the presence of an Ajivika astrologer named Pingalavatsa in his court.

Ashoka (273-232 BC)

• Following his father Bindusara, Ashoka succeeded the throne, likely after a battle of succession. According to Divyavadana, he quelled a rebellion in Taxila and merged the Avanti Mahajanapada with Magadha.
• Initiated into Buddhism by a 7-year-old monk named Nigrodh, Ashoka reduced the land revenue of Lumbini village to the first eighth of its produce.
• Three phases of Ashoka’s life were identified as Kamasoka, Chandasoka, and Dhammasoka.

Kalinga War

• Ashoka waged only one major war, the Kalinga War, resulting in significant casualties. The aftermath deeply moved Ashoka, prompting a shift from physical occupation to cultural conquest.
• Bhabru Inscription indicates that two years after the war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism ardently.

Ashoka’s Dhamma

• After converting to Buddhism, Ashoka generously supported Buddhists and initiated the Dhamma Yatra.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma Policy aimed not only at religious promotion but also at becoming a state policy. He advocated conquest through Dhamma, replacing war drums (Bherighosa) with the sound of peace (Dhammaghosa).
• For Dhamma propagation, Ashoka implemented various measures through Dhamma Mahamata and regulation.
• Embarking on pilgrimages to sacred Buddhist sites, Ashoka visited Gaya, Kushinagar, Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Sarnath, and Shravasti.
• Propagators of Buddhism sent by Ashoka included Majjantik (Kashmir/Kandhar), Majjim (Himalayan region), Rakshit (Northern Border Zone), Mahendra, Sanghamitra (Sri Lanka), Sone, Uttara Suvarnabhumi (South India), Moha Dharma Rakshit, Mahadeo (Maharashtra), Dharma Rakshit (Western India), and Moha Rakshit (Greek City-States).

Ashoka’s Inscriptions

• Ashoka holds the distinction of being the first ruler to issue royal edicts. His Dhamma, a set of ethical and moral principles, did not align with any particular religious doctrine. 
• The rock edicts commissioned by Ashoka convey his intention to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, including Brahmanas and Sramanas.
• The majority of these inscriptions have been unearthed in Mysuru, with the first Ashokan Edict discovered by Padre Tieffenthaler and later deciphered by James Prinsep in AD 1837 on the Delhi-Meerut Pillar. 
• Composed primarily in the Brahmi script (written left to right) and Prakrit language, notable inscriptions from places like Maski, Gurjara, Nittur, and Degolan include Ashoka’s full name—Devanampiya Ashoka Piyadassi.

Devanampiya Piyadassi

• Devanampiya Piyadassi, also known as Devanampriya (Beloved of the Gods), was a Pali honorific epithet used by Ashoka for himself in his inscriptions. Initially, James Prinsep incorrectly identified Devanampriya as the King of Ceylon, Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura. Later research in 1837 by George Turnour, through Sri Lankan manuscripts Dipavamsa, revealed that Piyadassi was originally associated with Ashoka.
• In the Kanganahalli relief sculpture inscription, Ranyo Ashoka is mentioned alongside the stone portrait of Ashoka.

Ashokan Edicts

• Ashoka pioneered the issuance of edicts in ancient India, with these inscriptions appearing either on stone pillars or rocks. 
• They are categorized into major and minor groups, with the fourteen major rock edicts covering a wide scope, outlining the nature and broader application of Dhamma.

Fourteen Major Rock Edicts

• These major rock edicts are found at various locations, including Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar (Pakistan), Sopara (Mumbai), Dhauli and Tuara (erragudi, Andhra Pradesh), Mansehg Jaugada (both in Odisha), and Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan in Kharosthi).
• They address aspects of administration and ethics.

Contents of Major Rock Edicts

Minor Rock Edicts

• Minor Rock Edicts are concentrated in the South and Central parts of the empire.
• They highlight Ashoka’s activity as a Buddhist disciple i.e., the personal history of Ashoka, and also represent the summary of Dhamma.
• The edict found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed in Greek and Aramaic. Minor Rock Edict III (Bairat) is addressed to the Buddhist clergy.

Ashoka Minor  Edicts

Major Pillar Edicts

• Comprising a collection of seven edicts, the Pillar Edicts are located at various sites, including Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut, Rampurva, Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Allahabad-Kosambi.
• Two pillars, originally from Topra and Meerut, were relocated to Delhi during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• The Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad incorporates two later inscriptions—one by Gupta ruler Samudragupta Prayaga Prashasti, composed by the poet Harisena, detailing his conquests, and another by the Mughal emperor Jahangir.
• The complete set of seven edicts is exclusively preserved at the Topra site.
• Pillar Edict VII stands as the final proclamation issued by Ashoka.

Contents of Ashokan Major Pillar Edicts

Later Mauryans (232-184 BC)

• According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka ruled for 27 years. The disintegration of the Mauryan empire seemed to have set in immediately after Ashoka’s death, The list of later Mauryans is as follows

Later Emperors of the Mauryan Dynasty

Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan empire had major administrative units like the Centre and the provinces, which had various sub-units down to the village and all came under the purview of Central administration.

Central Administration

• According to Kautilya, the state is composed of seven elements known as Saptanga. These elements include Svamin (King), Amatya (Minister or High Officials), Janapada (Territory or Population), Durga (Fort), Kosa (Treasury), Bala (Army), and Mitra (Friend or Ally).
• The King serves as the nucleus of the state and is supported by the Mantri Parishad, consisting of Yuvraj, Purohita, Senapati, and other key advisors. The highest-ranking officers, known as Tirthas and Adhyakshas (superintendents), oversee 26 different departments.
• Amatyas, or civil servants, are appointed to handle day-to-day administration responsibilities within the state.

Eighteen Tirthas

Important Adhyakashas

Provincial and Local Administration

• The Mauryan Empire was primarily organized into four provinces with capitals in Ujjain, Taxila, Kalinga, and Suvarnagiri.
• Each province was overseen by a prince from the Mauryan dynasty.
• Further division of these provinces into smaller units was carried out for efficient administration.
• The districts were managed by Rajukas, who received assistance from Yuktas. Village administration was the responsibility of Grahminis, while Gopas exercised control over groups of ten to fifteen villages.
• The city superintendent, known as Nagarika, played a crucial role in maintaining law and order.
• The Mauryan state also implemented local and municipal administration, where Vish or Ahara served as units within a province.
• According to Megasthenes, six committees, each consisting of five members, were established for the administration of municipalities.
• All the municipal commissioners in their collective capacity were required to control all the affairs of the city and keep in order the markets, temples, harbors, and public works.

Revenue Administration

• There were different sources of state revenue i.e., cities, rural areas, mines, pastures, plantations, and forests.
• He supervised collection for the entire kingdom.
• The chief custodian of the State Treasury was Samahartha or Samidatta.

Different Types of Taxes

Mauryan Army

• Megasthenes reported a military council comprising 30 members for administration, divided into six sub-committees with five members each.
• The army boasted infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, boats, and provisions, including 30,000 cavalry and 900 elephants.
• The primary components of the force were chariots, cavalry, elephants, and infantry, aligned with the military organization outlined in the Arthashastra.
• The Mauryans also maintained a naval force.

Judiciary

• Legal sources, according to Kautilya, included Dharma, Vyavahara (current legal codes), Charitra (customs), and Rajashasana (royal decree).
• The Chief Justice, known as the Dharmadhikari, played a crucial role.

Mauryan Society

• The caste system in Mauryan society, outlined by Megasthenes, was occupation-based rather than birth-based, encompassing seven castes:
  • Philosophers
  • Soldiers and Warriors
  • Magistrates or Superintendents
  • Councillors and Assessors
  • Artisans and Traders
  • Herdsmen and Shepherds
  • Peasants
• The caste stratification had roots in the Chaturvarna system: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Proper hospitals with appointed doctors, midwives, nurses, etc., were established in Mauryan society.

Position of Women

• Women held a prominent status in Mauryan society, with some even serving as assistants and bodyguards to the king. 
• Offenses against women were punishable by law, reflecting a commitment to their protection. Marriages and polygamy were prevalent, particularly among the royal classes, while common people could opt for polygamy if there were no sons. Women possessed property in the form of Stridhana, including bridal gifts. Sati, a practice of self-immolation by widows, was rare and mainly confined to the higher classes.
• The concept of slavery, as seen in people compelled to work as dasas, was absent. Aryas, including Shudras, could not be forcibly made dasas.
• Dasas in India were not employed in unclean work, could hold and transmit property, and, under specific conditions, could regain their freedom as a matter of right.
• The Brahmanical stance on untouchability hardened, leading to the existence of wells reserved exclusively for Chandals. Jataka tales mention untouchable communities like Chandala, Nishad, and Shabar, who were subjected to inhumane treatment.
• Widespread belief in magical practices and superstitions prevailed in Mauryan society. Various rites and practices were mentioned for gaining favor with the king, acquiring wealth, afflicting enemies with diseases, securing a long life, or having a son.
• A proper system of census existed, registering details of deaths and births. The census officer, Nagarika, maintained reference data for farmers, cattle, traders, and cowherds, ensuring proper tax levies. 
• The city life was well-regulated, with residential accommodations reserved for different communities and trades in designated quarters. Strictly implemented building laws and regulations focused on sanitation and the disposal of the deceased.

Mauryan Economy

• The chief source of the Mauryan economy was land tax, collected by revenue officers. Foreign trade, both over land and sea, was prevalent and regulated by documents akin to passports. 
• Indigo, cotton, and silk were major trading commodities, and trade routes were referred to as Vanikatha.
• Punch-marked coins, primarily of silver and copper, were in circulation. Money served various purposes, including paying government officials in cash, while hired laborers were known as Karmakaras.

Agriculture

• The Gana Sangha System, with communal ownership of land, persisted in some parts of the empire. 
• State-owned lands, called Sita lands, were also present. The state took a keen interest in irrigation, encouraging people to repair dams and construct water reservoirs.

Mauryan Art

• The Mauryan art that flourished during ancient India was a culmination of a long development that began indigenously, grew as time grew and reached its zenith during the Mauryan period.
• There are no extant examples of either sculpture or architecture that can be dated to the pre-Mauryan times.
• Mauryan art marked a departure from earlier Indian traditions, moving from materials like wood, sun-dried brick, clay, ivory, and metal to stone on a grand scale, showcasing technical skill and finesse.
• Influenced by the Achaemenid Empire of Iran, Mauryan art was evident in territories that touched Afghanistan, once Achaemenid possessions.
• Close relations with the Hellenistic empire, influenced by Achaemenid art, were also present in Mauryan times.
• Elements of Mauryan art were believed to have indigenous origins, incorporating a mix of folk and court elements.
• The famous Mauryan polish, as well as motifs like bull, lion, lotus, and geese on Ashokan pillars, had indigenous roots.
• Key examples of Mauryan art and culture included the remains of the royal palace and city of Pataliputra, the monolithic railing at Sarnath, and cave dwellings in the Barabar-Nagarjuni hills in Gaya.

Pillars, Sculptures, Stupas, and Caves

• Mauryan pillars were made of red and white sandstone or buff-colored fine-grained Hayden grey stone, exemplified by the Sarnath pillar.
• Ashokan pillars, monolithic and made of hard sandstone, were finely chiseled and polished.
• Stupas were built to enshrine relics of Buddha or revered Buddhist monks, with the Stupa at Sanchi being a prime example.
• Caves served as residences for monks, churches, and assembly halls, with the Barabar hills’ caves, such as Lomas Rishi and Sudama, showcasing Mauryan architecture.
• The rock-cut caves in the Barabar hills near Gaya are the oldest surviving examples of Mauryan rock-cut caves.

The Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire

• The imperial authority of the Mauryas began to weaken with the death of Ashoka and finally collapsed in 180 BC.
• There were various reasons for the same. Some of the major reasons were as follows:

Successors of Ashoka

• Several literary texts like the Puranas, the Avadanas and the Jain accounts suggest that after the death of Ashoka, the empire was divided among the surviving sons.
• It appears that after Ashoka, the empire got fragmented and that there was a quick succession of rulers. This weakened the imperial control over the administration.
• The early three kings, Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Ashoka, had organized the administration in such a way that it needed strict supervision.
• The quick succession of kings made this difficult as none of the rulers could actually settle down and be in control of things.
• The partition of the Mauryan empire itself signifies the commencement of disintegration immediately after Ashoka’s death.

Political and Administrative Failures

• The disorder in the administrative machinery post-Ashoka’s demise is considered a significant factor in the Mauryan empire’s disintegration.
• A key challenge for Ashoka’s successors was deciding whether to continue his Dhamma policy as a state approach.
• In the later phase, the Mauryan bureaucracy faced immense stress, resulting in an inefficient administration unable to maintain social order. The complex spy system under the later Mauryas also collapsed.

Economic Challenges

• Financial constraints impacted the Mauryan economy in the later phase, evidenced by increased taxes and debasement of the currency in Punch-marked coins.
• These economic pressures are accepted as pivotal factors contributing to significant changes in the later Magadhan empire and its eventual decline.

Oppressive Rule

• During Bindusara’s reign, complaints arose about misrule in Taxila, which persisted during Ashoka’s rule despite his efforts to address it.
• Despite Ashoka’s measures, oppression continued in the outlying provinces.

Spread of Knowledge

• The expansion of the Mauryan empire led to the dissemination of material knowledge to Central India, Kalinga, and the Deccan.
• The Gangetic basin, the heart of the empire, lost its special advantage, contributing to the rise of new kingdoms like Shungas, Kanvas, and Chedis.

Neglect of the North-West Frontier

• Ashoka’s focus on missionary activities led to neglect of the North-West frontier, allowing nomadic threats to emerge.
• Unlike China’s Great Wall construction, Ashoka did not take preventive measures, resulting in Scythians, Parthians, Shakas, and Greeks moving towards India.

Ashoka’s Dhamma Policy

• Scholars suggest that Ashoka’s political decisions or their consequences played a role in the Mauryan empire’s disintegration.
• Pushyamitra Shunga’s anti-Buddhist stance and actions against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and some successors are cited.
• The Dhamma-Mahamattas, appointed by Ashoka, may have contributed to the decline in Brahmana prestige by challenging traditional Brahmanical laws.
• Though lacking direct evidence, it’s plausible that these officials became unpopular, contributing to the emergence of new dynasties ruled by Brahmin kings like the Satavahanas and Shungas.

Prelims facts

• Which Indian king defeated Seleucus the administrator of Sindh and Afghanistan appointed by Alexander? – Chandragupta /MPPSC (Pre) 2009]
• The remains of which ancient city have been found at the Kumrahar site? – Pataliputra [UPPSC (Mains) 2011]
• Who is the author of Arthashastra as well as Chief Advisor of Chandragupta Maurya – Chanakya [HPSC (Pre) 2023]
• Who was the first ruler to take initiative for water resource management in Girnar region? – Chandragupta Maurya [UPPSC (Pre) 2011]
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra deals with which aspect of life? – Political life [BPSC (Pre) 2001,2018]
• Ashoka won the Avanti Mahajanapada and merged in the Mauryan empire during Bindusara rule, what text does it refers to? – Samant Pasadika of Buddhaghoas /MPPSC (Pre) 2020]
• Turamaya, a contemporary of the Ashoka, was the ruler of which region? – Egypt [UPPSC (Pre) 2012]
• In which relief sculpture inscription in Ranyo Ashoka (king Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka? – Kanganhalli [IAS (Pre) 2019]
• In which inscription of Ashoka, there is a mention of South Indian Kingdoms? – Second Major Rock Edicts [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
• Which rock edicts of Ashoka speak of religious synthesis? – Rock Edict XII [UPPSC (Pre) 2022)
• Askokan Inscription in North-Western part of the Mauryan Empire near Peshawar were in – Kharoshthi Script [JPSC (Pre) 2021]
• Which script of ancient India was written from right to left? – Kharoshthi [BPSC (Pre) 2019]
• In which inscription, Ashoka declared that ‘All men are my children’? – Kalinga Rock Edict I [Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2014)
• The official ‘Agronomai’ during Mauryan age was related to which field? – Construction of Roads IUPPSC (Pre) 2020)
• Which Mauryan officers was incharge of weights and measures? – Pautavadhyaksha [UPPSC (Mains) 2012)
• Which dynasty did rule over Magadha after Nanda dynasty? – Maurya [BPSC (Pre) 2005)
• Chandragupta Maurya figures prominently in the book of – Vishakhadatta (BPSC (Pre) 2004)
• Who came to India durinig the time of Chandragupta Maurya? – Megasthenes [WBCS (Pre) 2018)
• In which year Chandragupta Maurya defeat seleucus? – 305 BC [UPPSC (Pre) 2014)
• In now many categories did Megasthenes divide the Indian society? – Seven [BPSC (Pre) 2003]
• The name by which Ashoka is referred to his inscription – Priyadarshi [BPSC (Pre) 2019)

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