The British Expansion in India – East India Company, Presidencies, Governor-generals, and Battles

The British East India Company was a joint-stock company established in 1600, which ruled India using a commercial-military enterprise from 1757 to 1859. The Company’s first ship docked at Surat port in present-day Gujarat in 1608. The Company started its first factory in present-day Andhra Pradesh in 1613. Company rule in India began after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 when it dethroned Bengal’s Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah. Following the Battle of Buxar, the expansion of British rule in India gained momentum.

British in India (1700-1750)

India became the focal point of British trade between the later half of the 17th and mid-18th centuries. The East India Company was given a monopoly of all English trade to Asia by a royal grant at its inception in 1600. The trade of cotton textile was paramount in India for the East India Company. The Company set its main settlements in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, where cotton textile was most readily available for export. Hence, these areas turned into major commercial towns, with Indian merchants and artisans setting up their bases to do business with the East India Company.

​​British expansion in India (1751-1900)

The territorial expansion of the British in India came about through bloody battles and strategic policies. Starting from the Battle of Plassey to the annexation of Punjab in 1849, the British spread its rule over the entire Indian subcontinent. Some of their methods, for example, Subsidiary Alliance, Policy of Paramountcy, and the Doctrine of Lapse helped them expand and consolidate their empire in India.

Expansion under Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) 

Lord Wellesley came to India in 1798 when Britain and France were amidst a severe power struggle in Europe. Lord Wellesley realised that the time was apt to establish political control over India as the strong empires—Mysore and Marathas—were declining in power. To achieve this aim, Wellesley relied on three methods: First, Subsidiary Alliances; Second, war; Third, assuming the territories of formerly subordinated rulers.

Under the subsidiary alliance system, the ruler of a state who would ally with the British power would be compelled to station a British force in his state and pay for its maintenance. The East India Company troops would, in turn, protect the state and its ruler. Still, the ulterior motive was to eventually gain control over the territory when the ruler would be left with no resources to pay for the force.

Besides maintaining an army, the ruler will not employ any European in the kingdom without British approval and will not negotiate with another Indian ruler. In return, the British would safeguard their territory without interfering in their internal affairs.

Expansion under Lord Hastings (1813-22)

Lord Hastings became the Governor-General from 1813 to 1823. Under the new expansionist policy for territorial expansion in India, the Policy of Paramountcy was introduced. Under this, the East India Company claimed to have complete or paramount authority and became the supreme law that justified the annexations of any Indian territory to protect its interest.

The annexation of the Maratha territory was justified under the Policy of Paramountcy. The defeat of Marathas in the Second Anglo-Maratha War caused a great deal of anguish and pain among the Maratha rulers. They regrouped and made a last attempt to gain independence and lost glory in 1817.

The Anglo-Sikh wars 

Later, the Anglo-Sikh struggle, i.e., Sikh resistance against British expansionism, resulted in two Anglo-Sikh battles. The First Anglo-Sikh War between the Sikh community and the East India Company was fought in 1845-1846.

The Treaty of Lahore was also signed between the British and the Sikhs on 9 March 1846. In addition, controls were placed on the size of the Lahore army and thirty-six field guns were confiscated.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War took place in 1848 and 1849. The Sikhs were defeated in this war, and Punjab was annexed by the East India Company, which eventually became the North-West frontier province.

Lieutenant William Anderson and Patrick Vans Agnew were sent on 19th April 1848 to take charge of Multan from the Diwan Mulraj. They were murdered there, and Sikh troops started an open rebellion.

Expansion under Lord Dalhousie (1848–56)

Lord Dalhousie became the Governor-General of India in 1848. He continued with the expansionist policy to extend British rule over larger territories in India. He was confident that the existing native states in India would soon cease to exist, as the oppressive administration of the native states would never be able to withstand the superior British administration.

The instrument of the annexation of native Indian states by Lord Dalhousie was the Doctrine of Lapse.

As per the Doctrine of Lapse, if a ruler of an unprotected state dies without a natural heir, the adopted heir cannot take over the throne, as was the tradition at that time. The kingdom will be annexed to the British dominions. The adopted heir can take over only if the adoption had been approved earlier by the British authorities. In 1848, the states of Satara and Nagpur were annxed, while Jhansi was annxed in 1854 under the Doctrine of Lapse. The ex-rulers also lost their pension rights, as their titles were not recognised anymore.

Conclusion

The territorial expansion of British rule in India during the 18th century laid the groundwork for the East India Company to gain larger profits from the rich natural and human resources of the subcontinent over the next two centuries. The expansionist policies adopted by the various Governor Generals made sure the control of Indian territories and subjugation of native rulers were done with precision. The British rule made its mark in India’s history like none other.

Growth of the English East India Company

In 1599, an English company was formed by a group of merchants to trade with the east, known as Merchant Adventurers. It was given the permission and exclusive rights to trade with the east, by the queen in 1600.

Mughal emperor, Jahangir, gave captain Hawkins the royal farman to set up factories on the western coast. Later, Sir Thomas Roe obtained the farman to establish factories in all parts of the Mughal empire.

Bombay passed into the British hands as dowry given by the Portuguese. The British conflicts with the Dutch were settled by giving up all claims to Indonesia.

The conditions in the south were apt for the English. They started from Madras, by building a fort there, called Fort St. George. The problems broke out when the English sacked Hugli and declared war on the emperor. They failed miserably. This was the first lesson they learnt. From then on, they relied on flattery and humble entreaties, waiting for their chance. In 1698, Fort William was built and Calcutta was founded. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta soon grew up to be flourishing centres of trade.

The French, under Dupleix, who had come to India by then had already started interfering in the affairs of the local princes using their well-equipped army. In 1742, a war had broken out in Europe between France and England.

Following the death of the nizam in 1748, his son Nasir Jung took over the crown. He was challenged by Muzaffar Jung, a grandson of the nizam. Similar situations were in the Carnatic, where Chanda Sahib was conspiring against the nawab Anwarudeen. The French took the sides of both the rebels, and won both of their claims for them, killing Anwarudeen and Nasir Jung. The English, naturally took the side of the fallen, under Muhammad Ali, a son of Anwarudeen. The wars were then won by the English side under the able generalship and cunning of Robert Clive. Finally, the French recalled Dupleix from India, according to their treaty in 1754.  Later, in 1760, the French were completely destroyed at the battle of Wandiwash. Thus, the English remained the sole masters of India.

The farman granted to the British by the emperor enabled them to conduct free trade in Bengal. Neither did they have to pay dastaks for the movement of such goods. However, these were misused by the company’s servants and this meant the loss of revenue for Bengal. In 1756, the grandson of Alivardi Khan, Siraj-ud-Daulah came to the throne, he demanded the English that they should trade on the same basis as the Indian merchants. Matters took a turn for the worse when the English refused and strengthened their fortifications. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which Siraj-ud-Daulah was treacherously defeated by the cheating by Mir Jaffar and Rai Durlabh. This brought the British immense prestige and revenue.

Later, when Mir Jaffar couldn’t keep up with the tribute promised to the British, they installed Mir Qasim on the throne. He was clever and knew that both revenue and an army was required to stand against the British. And finally, he abolished all the duties on internal trade. This angered the British, and they defeated Mir Qasim in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

How did the British who came to India for trade become the rulers of territories?

• In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East. Then onwards no other trading group in England could compete with the East India Company.
• However, the royal charter didn’t prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets.
• The Portuguese had already established their presence on the western coast of India and had their base in The Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean. Soon the French traders arrived on the scene.
• The problem was that all the companies were interested in buying the same things. So the only way the trading companies could flourish was by eliminating rival competitors. The urge to secure markets, therefore, led to fierce battles between the trading companies.
• Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through fortification.

East India Company begins to trade in Bengal

• The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651.
• By 1696 it began building a fort around the settlement near the factory where merchants and traders
• The company persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting the Company the right to trade duty-free.
• Aurangzeb’s farman had granted only the Company the right to trade duty-free. The officials of the Company, who were carrying on private trade on the side, were expected to pay duty. However, they did private trades without paying taxes, causing an enormous loss of revenue for Bengal.
• This behaviour led to a protest by the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan.

How the trade led to battles?

• We have already seen that with the decline of Mughal rule, many successor states emerged.
• After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and autonomy, as other regional powers were doing at that time.
• Nawabs refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large tributes for the Company’s right to trade, denied it any right to mint coins, and stopped it from extending its fortifications.
• The Company on its part declared that the trade could flourish only if the duties were removed. It was also convinced that to expand trade it had to enlarge its settlements, buy up villages, and rebuild its forts.
• The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated in the famous Battle of Plassey.

The Battle of Plassey

• Sirajuddaulah, then Nawab of Bengal, with his force, captured the English factory at Kassimbazar and then went to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort.
• Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab followed.
• Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.
• Clive had managed to secure the support of one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders named Mir Jafar by promising to make him Nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.
• The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory for the English East India Company in India.
• The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of the administration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade.
• But Mir Jafar protested with the British on administrative matters. He was replaced by Mir Mir Qasim. He too had conflicts with the East India company. The Company defeated him in the Battle of Buxar (1764).
• East India company now started to shift from their primary objective from trade to expansion of territories.
• In 1765 the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal.
• Now revenues from India could finance Company expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

Company Rule Expands

• After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states.
• Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states.
• Sometimes the Company forced the states into a “subsidiary alliance”. According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They will be protected by the Company but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company maintain for the purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as a penalty.

Conflict with Tipu Sultan

• Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company purchased pepper and cardamom. In 1785 Tipu Sultan stopped the export of these substances through the ports of his kingdom and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.
• He also established a close relationship with the French in India and modernised his army with their help. All these made the British furious.
• Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767- 69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799). Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam – did the Company ultimately got a victory.
• Mysore was later placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

Conflict with the Marathas

• With their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas’ dream of ruling from Delhi came to an end.
• The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars. In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no clear winner.
• The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on different fronts, resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river including Agra and Delhi.
• The Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817-19 crushed the Maratha power.
• The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

The claim to paramountcy

• Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823) a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, so it was justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom.
• This view continued to guide later British policies.
• These periods saw the British shifting the control the north-west because of Russian invasion fear.
• British fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842 and established indirect Company rule there. Sind was taken over. In 1849, Punjab was annexed.

The Doctrine of Lapse

• The final wave of annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie who was the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856 using Doctrine of Lapse policy.
• The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory. Many kingdoms were annexed simply by applying this doctrine: Examples – Satara (1848), Sambalpur  (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854).
• Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. Now this time the British mentioned that they took over Awadh in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab, which enraged by the Nawab who was deposed. The people of Awadh later joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

Setting up a New Administration

• Warren Hastings (Governor-General 1773 to 1785) played a significant role in the expansion of Company power.
• By his time the Company had acquired power not only in Bengal but also in Bombay and Madras and these were considered as administrative units called Presidencies.
• Each was ruled by a Governor. The supreme head of the administration was the Governor-General.
• Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of justice.
• Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established, while a court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta.
• The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector whose main job was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers etc.

List of British Governors Generals during British Period in India

Governors of Fort William in Bengal (1757-1772)

1.Roger Drake (1757)
2. Robert Clive (First Administration; 1757-1760)
3. Holwell (Officiating; 1760)
4. Henry Vansittart (1760-1765)5. Robert Clive (Second Administration; 1765-1767)
6. Established Dual Government in Bengal from 1765-72
7. Bengal White Mutiny by white brigades at Allahabad and Monghyr
8. Harry Verelst (1767-1769)
9. Cartier (1769-72)