Medieval India: Tripartite Struggle and Cholas (NCERT)

New Kings and Kingdoms

• Many dynasties emerged during 7th century.
• By the 7th century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.
• Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. As these samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha- mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on.
• Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
• Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is one such instance. Initially they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
• In each states, resources were obtained from the producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced.
• Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example.
• However author named Kalhana composed Sanskrit poems in 12th century and he was critical about the rulers and their policies.
• Kanauj in the Ganga valley was a prized area. For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. Historians often describe it as the “tripartite struggle”.
• Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan [ruled 997-1030] and extended control over Central Asia, Iran and north-west parts of subcontinent used to attack these temples including Somnath of Gujarat.
• Al-Biruni, Gazni’s trusted scholar was made to write about to subcontinent he conquered. This arabic wrok Kitanb-al-Hind sought help from Sankrit scholars too.
• Chauhans /Chahamanas, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.

The Cholas

• Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
• The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew.
• Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in AD 985 and expanded the control.
• Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
• The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda- cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra.
• Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. And these temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.
• Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new developments in agriculture.
• Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu.
• The village council and the nadu had several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
• Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola govt.

What was the Tripartite Struggle?

The term “Tripartite Struggle” in northern India describes the time of political unrest that took place during the time of 8th-9th centuries followed by the conflict that led to the fall of Harsha’s empire. During this period the three main empires of Rashtrakuta, Pratihara, and Pala were fighting with one another to occupy Kannauj.

The Tripartite War, often referred to as the Kannauj Triangle Wars, broke out between the Pratihara, Pala, and Rashtrakuta empires for control over the area of northern India, Kannauj.

The Pala King Dharmpala fought against the Parithara King Vatsaraja for control of Kannauj. After winning, Vatsaraja was vanquished by Dhurva-I, King of Rashtrakuta. Dharmpala again took Kannauj after Dhruva-I returned to the south, although his rule was only temporary. A tripartite fight among kingdoms for control of Kannauj went on for about two centuries.

Tripartite Struggle History

Regarding Kannauj, Vatsaraja, the ruler of Pratihara, had high ambitions. Similarly, Kannauj was the desire of Dharmapala, the Pala king. Consequently, a struggle arose between these two kings. In a battle at Gangetic Doab, Vatsaraja vanquished Dharmapala. Simultaneously, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva vanquished Vatsaraja. Moreover, Dhruva vanquished Dharmapala. Ultimately, this intense animosity resulted in a tripartite conflict between the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Pratiharas.

Tripartite Struggle Main Reason

Situated along the Ganga commerce route, Kannauj was linked to the Silk Route. Kannauj gained significant strategic and commercial importance as a result. It was also the former capital of the Indian empire Harshvardhana. In order to capitalise on Kannauj’s enormous strategic and economic potential, the three Kingdoms waged war on one another.

Causes of Tripartite Struggle

The causes of Tripartite Struugle are mentioned below:

Empire Disintegration

Harsha’s passing in the middle of the 7th century left northern India without a political leader. The Harsha Empire broke apart into smaller regional organisations due to the lack of a powerful central government. Pratihar and Rashtrakuta fought it out for control of Malwa and Gujarat, while the Pala and Pratihars fought it out for control of the upper Ganga Valley.

Economic Factors

• The desire to possess the city of Kannauj was one of the most important factor of tripartite struggle.
• Fall of the Gupta Empire and the end of the Silk Road contributed to the breakdown of trade channels, which in turn affected the region’s prosperity
• Conflicts between local leaders over resources increased which finally led to economic hardships.
• The goal of becoming Sakalottarpathanath, or “lord of all Uttarpath,” drew the Rashtrakutas to Kannauj. Parallel to this, the Palas aspired to be called Uttarpathaswami, or the lord of Uttarpath.

Rise of Feudal Chieftains

The rise of feudal chieftains was hindered by the direct rule of the king by vassal rulers and independent chiefs. They also fought several wars that divided political power and prevented the establishment of a single powerful kingdom. The Rashtrakutas were in constant combat with the Vengi vassal chiefs, and the Pratiharas were in constant conflict with the Malwa Paramars.

Tripartite Struggle – Phase I

To occupy and control Kannauj a three-way battle started between the Rashtrakuta, Pala, and Prathihara dynasties. The initial stage of this struggle started in 790 AD with a fight between Dharmapala and Vatsaraja.

• Dharmapala was vanquished in the battle at Prayag by the Pratihara king Vatsaraja.
• Vatsaraja eventually lost to Dhruva, the ruler of Rashtrakuta.
• Following Vatsaraja’s defeat, Dharmapala assumed control of Kannauj, but Dhruva again vanquished him.
• However, because he had to go back to the south in order to preserve his own country, Dhruva was unable to solidify his victory.
• Following Dhruva’s demise in 793 CE, a succession dispute decimated the Rashtrakutas.
• The Palas were given a great chance to strengthen their position when the Rashtrakutas swiftly withdrew from Northern India, destroying their rivals, the Pratiharas.
• Using the circumstances to his advantage, Dharmapala restored Kannauj and installed Chakrayudha as king.
• Through a string of triumphant expeditions, Dharmapala made a name for himself as the ruler of almost all of Northern India.

Tripartite Struggle – Phase II

Nagabhatta II, the heir apparent to Vatsaraja, invaded Kanauj, drove out Chakrayudha , the ruler of that region, and took power.

• Since Chakrayudha was Dharmapala’s apprentice, a conflict between Dharmapala and Nagabhatta II was unavoidable.
• In a fight at Munger, Dharmapala was vanquished by Nagabhatta II.
• The fight for Kannauj increased once Nagabhata II grabbed control of the city.
• His reign was brief, since Govinda III, the Rastrakuta king and Dhruva’s successor, quickly toppled him.
• After this triumph, Govinda III quickly departed for the Deccan.
• Rastrakuta and Palas power started to decline together by the end of the 9th century.
• At the end the Pratiharas dynasty emerged as victors and asserted their control over central India.

Consequences of the Tripartite Struggle

As a result of the struggle between three empires led the regions open to both internal uprisings and foreign invasions.

Consolidation of Regional Forces

• The eastern Pala Empire, the western Pratihara Empire, and the eastern Rashtrakuta Empire became the dominant regional forces in the Deccan.
• The political power and regional growth were reinforced by each dynasty.

Constant Demand for Resources to Fund Military Campaigns

The empires’ economic bases were constantly under pressure.

Cultural and Religious Diversity

• The three-way conflict made it possible to preserve and advance a variety of cultural and religious traditions. As a result, several regions developed unique cultural identities that added to the rich history of India.
• Dharmpala brought back to life the Nalanda University.

Military Advancements

• Leaders have made investments in military strategies and advancements as a result of the ongoing hostilities.
• As kings attempted to protect their lands, this era saw advancements in maritime, cavalry, and fortification technologies.

Art and Architecture

• Temples, statues, and other architectural wonders reflecting regional styles were built as a result of local rulers’ patronage of the arts.
• The Rashtrakuta Kings constructed the well-known Shiva rock-cut temple at Ellora.

Prathihara Capital and the End of the Struggle

After Devapala crushed the Pala empire under Narayanapala’s rule, Mihir Bhoja, the grandson of Nagabhata II, king of Prathihara, established Kannauj as the capital of his kingdom. The Pratihara empire peaked under King Mahendrapala I, son of Mihir Bhoja, but afterwards it gradually started to wane due to its ongoing conflict with the Arabs to the west, the Palas to the east, and the Rashtrakutas to the south of their territory. Between 914 and 916 CE, Kannauj was under the rule of Rhastrakuta King Indra III. The Pratihara dynasty ruled Kannauj until King Yashpala’s death in 1036, despite the city being devastated by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 CE.

Conclusion on Tripartite Struggle

Political, economic, religious, and cultural elements interacted intricately throughout the tripartite conflict in northern India. Although it resulted in localised governance and political fragmentation, it also promoted cultural diversity and set the stage for the later regional powers that moulded mediaeval India’s history.

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